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Prejudice and Discrimination during COVID-19 Pandemic

Yıl 2021, Cilt: 10 Sayı: 3, 2694 - 2716, 30.09.2021
https://doi.org/10.15869/itobiad.933544

Öz

The causes and consequences of discriminatory attitudes and behaviors are among the main research topics that social psychologists have been focusing for years. Theoretical approaches and studies conducted in this field examine the nature of prejudice and seek answers to the questions why discriminatory attitudes have increased and how they can be reduced. In the literature, it is seen that prejudices directed to disadvantaged groups increase in the times of global stress and uncertainty like economic crisis, natural disaster and pandemic. Nowadays, the COVID-19, which significantly shapes the daily life practices of individuals, also affects intergroup relations. With this outbreak prejudiced intergroup attitudes and behaviors have increased, and various groups such as people of Asian descent and elderly have become the target of prejudices. The main aims of this study are examining why prejudices strengthen during the COVID-19 from a social psychological perspective and offering suggestions for weakening them. In this research, firstly, the definition and nature of prejudice were given, and then the relationship between pandemic and prejudice was examined. Therefore, the pattern of discriminatory attitudes targeting disadvantaged groups was revealed in the COVID-19. The reasons why prejudices increased in times of global crisis were examined in terms of Terror Management Theory, Integrated Threat Theory and Social Identity Theory, and it was discussed what solutions these approaches could offer for reducing prejudices. Consequently, in order to reduce the increasing threat, uncertainty and fear, recommendations are listed like strengthening contact between groups, following policies that unite groups under a common group identity, facilitating the access of the society to accurate information about the pandemic, and using a peaceful language in media and leader discourses. This study will contribute to the literature and increase of harmony between groups by providing applicable solutions during epidemic when cooperation is needed instead of conflict.

Kaynakça

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COVID-19 Pandemisinde Önyargı ve Ayrımcılık

Yıl 2021, Cilt: 10 Sayı: 3, 2694 - 2716, 30.09.2021
https://doi.org/10.15869/itobiad.933544

Öz

Gruplar arasındaki ayrımcı tutum ve davranışların neden ve sonuçları, sosyal psikologların uzun yıllardır üzerinde durduğu araştırma konularının başında gelir. Sosyal psikoloji alanında geliştirilen kuramsal yaklaşımlar ve yürütülen çalışmalar ile önyargının doğası incelenmekte, ayrımcı tutumların neden arttığı ve nasıl azaltılabileceği sorularına yanıt aranmaktadır. Alan yazın incelendiğinde ekonomik kriz, doğal afet ve pandemi gibi toplumsal stres ve belirsizlik dönemlerinin, dezavantajlı grupları hedef alan ayrımcı tutumların arttığı dönemlerden olduğu göze çarpar. Günümüzde bireylerin günlük yaşam pratiklerini önemli ölçüde şekillendiren COVID-19 salgınının, gruplar arasındaki ilişkileri de etkilediği görülmektedir. COVID-19 pandemisi ile birlikte -tıpkı önceki pandemi dönemlerinde olduğu gibi- gruplar arasındaki önyargılı tutum ve davranışların yükselişe geçtiği, Asya kökenli kişiler ve yaşlılar gibi çeşitli grupların önyargıların hedefi haline geldiği ortaya çıkmıştır. Mevcut çalışmanın başat amaçları, COVID-19 pandemisi sürecinde önyargıların neden arttığını sosyal psikolojik bir bakış açısından irdelemek ve önyargıların zayıflatılması konusunda neler yapılabileceğine ilişkin çeşitli öneriler sunmaktır. Bu çalışmada öncelikle önyargının tanımı ve doğasına ilişkin açıklamalara yer verilmiş, ardından pandemi ve önyargı arasındaki ilişki irdelenmiştir. Bu amaç doğrultusunda, COVID-19 pandemisinde dezavantajlı grupları hedef alan ayrımcı tutum ve davranışların nasıl bir örüntü sergilediği ortaya konmuştur. Küresel kriz dönemlerinde gruplar arasındaki ayrımcılığın neden arttığı Dehşet Yönetimi Kuramı, Bütünleşik Tehdit Kuramı ve Sosyal Kimlik Kuramı gibi önemli sosyal psikoloji kuramları açısından irdelenmiş ve bahsi geçen bu yaklaşımların pandemi sürecinde yoğunlaşan önyargıların zayıflatılması adına ne gibi çözüm önerileri sunabileceği tartışılmıştır. Bu kapsamda, salgın sürecinde artan tehdit, belirsizlik ve korkunun azaltılması adına gruplar arasında gerçekleşen temas deneyimlerinin arttırılması, farklı grupları ortak bir üst grup kimliği altında birleştirici politikalar izlenmesi, toplumun pandemi süreci ile ilgili doğru bilgiye erişiminin sağlanması, medya ve lider söylemlerinde barışçıl bir dil kullanılması gibi öneriler sıralanmıştır. İşbu çalışmanın, çatışma yerine işbirliğine ihtiyaç duyulan salgın döneminde uygulanabilir çözüm yolları sunarak gruplar arasındaki uyumun arttırılmasına fayda sağlayacağı ve ilgili alanyazına önemli katkılar sunacağı düşünülmektedir.

Kaynakça

  • Allam, Z. (2020). Oil, health equipment, and trade: Revisiting political economy and international relations during the COVID-19 pandemic. Surveying the Covid-19 Pandemic and its Implications, 119-127. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-824313-8.00009-7
  • Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Addison-Wesley.
  • Alston, L., Meleady, R., & Seger, C. R. (2020). Can past intergroup contact shape support for policies in a pandemic? Processes predicting endorsement of discriminatory Chinese restrictions during the COVID-19 crisis. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430220959710
  • Armutlu, M. E., Bakır, A. C., Sönmez, H., Zorer, E., & Alvarez, M. D. (2020). Factors affecting intended hospitable behaviour to tourists: Hosting Chinese tourists in a post-Covid-19 world. Anatolia, 1-14.
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  • Başterzi, A. D., Cesur, E., Güvenç, H. R., Taşdelen, R., & Yılmaz, T. (2020). COVID-19 ve damgalanma. Türk Tabipler Birliği, COVID-19 Pandemisi Altıncı Ay Değerlendirme Raporu, 415-424.
  • Blascovich, J., Mendes, W. B., Hunter, S. B., Lickel, B., & Kowai-Bell, N. (2001). Perceiver threat in social interactions with stigmatized others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(2), 253-267. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.80.2.253
  • Brooke, J. & Jackson, D. (2020). Older people and COVID‐19: Isolation, risk and ageism. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 29(13-14), 2044-2046. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocn.15274
  • Brown, R. (2011). Prejudice: Its Social Psychology. Sussex: John Wiley & Sons.
  • Clissold, E., Nylander, D., Watson, C., & Ventriglio, A. (2020). Pandemics and prejudice. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 66(5), 421-423. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020937873
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  • Hogg, M. A., & Vaughan, M. G. (2007). Sosyal Psikoloji (Çev. İbrahim Yıldız ve Aydın Gelmez). Ankara: Ütopya Yayınevi.
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  • Hortaçsu, N. (1998). Grup İçi ve Gruplar Arası Süreçler. Ankara: İmge Kitabevi.
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  • Islam, A., Pakrashi, D., Vlassopoulos, M., & Wang, L. C. (2020). Stigma and misconceptions in the time of the covıd-19 pandemic: A field experiment in India. IZA Discussion Paper, No. 13.995, 1-39. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3758696
  • Kachanoff, F. J., Bigman, Y. E., Kapsaskis, K., & Gray, K. (2020). Measuring realistic and symbolic threats of COVID-19 and their unique impacts on well-being and adherence to public health behaviors. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 1-14.
  • Kantor Center (2020). Antisemitism Worldwide 2020. https://en-humanities.tau.ac.il/sites/humanities_en.tau.ac.il/files/media_server/humanities/kantor/Kantor%20Report%202020_130820.pdf (15 Haziran 2021’de ulaşıldı).
  • Kellaris, J. J., Machleit, K., & Gaffney, D. R. (2020). Sign evaluation and compliance under mortality salience. Interdisciplinary Journal of Signage and Wayfinding, 4(2), 51-66.
  • Kilbourne, E. D. (1977). Influenza pandemics in perspective. Jama, 237(12), 1225-1228. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/352021
  • Lazzari, G., Colavizza, G., Bortoluzzi, F., Drago, D., Erboso, A., Zugno, F., ... & Salathé, M. (2020). A digital reconstruction of the 1630–1631 large plague outbreak in Venice. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 1-7. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-74775-6
  • Lalot, F., Abrams, D., & Travaglino, G. A. (2021). Aversion amplification in the emerging COVID‐19 pandemic: The impact of political trust and subjective uncertainty on perceived threat. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 31(2), 213-222. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.2490
  • Liberman, Z., Woodward, A. L., & Kinzler, K. D. (2017). The origins of social categorization. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 21(7), 556-568. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2017.04.004
  • Makashvili, A., Vardanashvili, I., & Javakhishvili, N. (2018). Testing intergroup threat theory: Realistic and symbolic threats, religiosity and gender as predictors of prejudice. Europe's Journal of Psychology, 14(2), 464-484.
  • Mandalaywala, T. M., Gonzalez, G. ve Tropp, L. (2020). How intergroup contact and exposure predict anti-Asian prejudice in the United States during the COVID-19 pandemic. PsyArXiv. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/cbduw
  • McCarthy, N. (2021, 16 Temmuz). The countries where vaccination is mandatory. Statistica, Erişim, 9 Eylül, 2021. https://www.statista.com/chart/25326/obligatory-vaccination-against-covid-19/
  • Oğan, H. (2020). Pandemi ortamında sağlıkta şiddet. Türk Tabipler Birliği, COVID-19 Pandemisi Altıncı Ay Değerlendirme Raporu, 355-368.
  • Opotow, S. (1990). Moral exclusion and injustice: An introduction. Journal of Social Issues, 46(1), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1990.tb00268.x
  • Our World in Data (9 Eylül 2021), Coronavirus (COVID-19) Vaccinations. https://ourworldindata.org/covid-vaccinations
  • Paul, R. ve Pal J. (2020). A detailed history of pandemics. The Journal of the Indian Medical Association, 118(5), 45-65.
  • Pettigrew, T. F. (1998). Intergroup contact theory. Annual Review of Psychology, 49(1), 65-85. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.65
  • Pettigrew, T. F. ve Tropp L. R. (2008). How does intergroup contact reduce prejudice? Meta‐analytic tests of three mediators. European Journal of Social Psychology, 38(6), 922-934. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.504
  • Pitrelli, M. B. (2021, 9 Ağustos). Vaccines are being required for travel — here’s how unvaccinated people feel about that. CNBC, Erişim, 9 Eylül, 2021. https://www.cnbc.com/2021/08/10/covid-vaccines-required-for-travel-unvaccinated-people-dont-like-it.html
  • Prati, G., & Pietrantoni, L. (2016). Knowledge, risk perceptions, and xenophobic attitudes: Evidence from Italy during the Ebola outbreak. Risk Analysis, 36(10), 2000-2010. https://doi.org/10.1111/risa.12537
  • Pyszczynski, T., Lockett, M., Greenberg, J. & Solomon, S. (2021). Terror management theory and the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 61(2) 173–189.
  • Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., & Greenberg, J. (2003). In the wake of 9/11: The psychology of terror. Washington: American Psychological Association Press. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/10478-000
  • Rajkumar, R. P. (2020). COVID-19 and mental health: A review of the existing literature. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 52, 102066.
  • Ramaci, T., Barattucci, M., Ledda, C., & Rapisarda, V. (2020). Social stigma during COVID-19 and its impact on HCWs outcomes. Sustainability, 12(9), 3834-3847. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12093834
  • Rzymski, P., & Nowicki, M. (2020). COVID-19-related prejudice toward Asian medical students: a consequence of SARS-CoV-2 fears in Poland. Journal of Infection and Public Health, 13(6), 873-876. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiph.2020.04.013
  • Sanyaolu, A., Okorie, C., Marinkovic, A., Patidar, R., Younis, K., Desai, P., ... & Altaf, M. (2020). Comorbidity and its Impact on Patients with COVID-19. SN Comprehensive Clinical Medicine, 2(30), 1-8.
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  • Sherman, D. K., Hogg, M. A., & Maitner, A. T. (2009). Perceived polarization: Reconciling ingroup and intergroup perceptions under uncertainty. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 12(1), 95-109. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1368430208098779
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  • Steele, C. M. & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 797-811. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797
  • Stephan, W. G., & Stephan, C. W. (2000). An integrated threat theory of prejudice. S. Oskamp (Ed.) Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination içinde (ss.23-45). New Mexico: N. J. Lawrence Erlbaum.
  • Stephan, W. G., Diaz-Loving, R., & Duran, A. (2000). Integrated threat theory and intercultural attitudes: Mexico and the United States. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 31(2), 240-249. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022022100031002006
  • Swart, H., Hewstone, M., Christ, O., & Voci, A. (2011). Affective mediators of intergroup contact: A three-wave longitudinal study in South Africa. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(6), 1221-1238. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0024450
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  • Taylor, S. (2019). The psychology of pandemics: Preparing for the next global outbreak of infectious disease. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
  • T.C. Sağlık Bakanlığı (20 Haziran 2020), COVID-19 Durum Raporu Türkiye. Erişim, 10 Ocak, 2021 https://covid19.saglik.gov.tr/Eklenti/37778/0/covid-19-durum-raporupdf.pdf?_tag1=B647A4A46C8B41228B2C445361452762CAEFD728
  • Teksin, G., Uluyol, O. B., Onur, O. S., Teksin, M. G., & Ozdemir, H. M. (2020). Stigma-related factors and their effects on health-care workers during COVID-19 pandemics in Turkey: A multicenter study. The Medical Bulletin of Sisli Etfal Hospital, 54(3), 281-290. doi: 10.14744/SEMB.2020.02800
  • Two Muslim men attacked in Karnataka's Bagalkot, accused of 'spreading COVID-19' (2020, 7 Nisan 2020). Timesnow. https://www.timesnownews.com/videos/times-now/india/video-two-muslim-men-attacked-in-karnatakas-bagalkot-accused-of-spreading-covid/57846
  • Ünal, S. (2020). Dehşet yönetimi kuramı bağlamında COVID-19 salgını hakkında psikososyal bir değerlendirme. Klinik Psikiyatri Dergisi, 23, 67-71. https://jag.journalagent.com/kpd/pdfs/KPD-30932-REVIEW-UNAL.pdf
  • White, F. A. ve Abu-Rayya, H. M. (2012). A dual identity-electronic contact (DIEC) experiment promoting short-and long-term intergroup harmony. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(3), 597-608. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/j.jesp.2012.01.007
Toplam 77 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

Deniz Eniç 0000-0002-5737-9520

Yayımlanma Tarihi 30 Eylül 2021
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2021 Cilt: 10 Sayı: 3

Kaynak Göster

APA Eniç, D. (2021). COVID-19 Pandemisinde Önyargı ve Ayrımcılık. İnsan Ve Toplum Bilimleri Araştırmaları Dergisi, 10(3), 2694-2716. https://doi.org/10.15869/itobiad.933544
İnsan ve Toplum Bilimleri Araştırmaları Dergisi  Creative Commons Atıf-GayriTicari 4.0 Uluslararası Lisansı (CC BY NC) ile lisanslanmıştır.